Ronan Kelly
Retired 2020
CLIMATE CHANGE 2014
SYNTHESIS REPORT
Approved Summary for Policymakers
1 November 2014
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/SYR_AR5_SPM.pdf
...
1. Observed Changes and their Causes
Human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse
gases are the highest in history. Recent climate changes have had widespread impacts on human and
natural systems. {1}
1.1 Observed changes in the climate system
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are
unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of
snow and ice have diminished, and sea level has risen. {1.1}
...
1.2 Causes of climate change
Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have increased since the pre-industrial era, driven largely by
economic and population growth, and are now higher than ever. This has led to atmospheric
concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide that are unprecedented in at least the last
800,000 years. Their effects, together with those of other anthropogenic drivers, have been detected
throughout the climate system and are extremely likely to have been the dominant cause of the
observed warming since the mid-20th century. {1.2, 1.3.1}
...
1.3 Impacts of climate change
In recent decades, changes in climate have caused impacts on natural and human systems on all
continents and across the oceans. Impacts are due to observed climate change, irrespective of its cause,
indicating the sensitivity of natural and human systems to changing climate. {1.3.2}
...
1.4. Extreme events
Changes in many extreme weather and climate events have been observed since about 1950. Some of
these changes have been linked to human influences, including a decrease in cold temperature
extremes, an increase in warm temperature extremes, an increase in extreme high sea levels and an
increase in the number of heavy precipitation events in a number of regions. {1.4}
...
2. Future Climate Changes, Risks and Impacts
Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes in all
components of the climate system, increasing the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irreversible
impacts for people and ecosystems. Limiting climate change would require substantial and sustained
reductions in greenhouse gas emissions which, together with adaptation, can limit climate change
risks. {2}
2.1 Key drivers of future climate
Cumulative emissions of CO2 largely determine global mean surface warming by the late 21st century
and beyond. Projections of greenhouse gas emissions vary over a wide range, depending on both socioeconomic development and climate policy. {2.1}
...
2.2 Projected changes in the climate system
The projected changes in Section SPM 2.2 are for 2081-2100 relative to 1986-2005, unless otherwise
indicated.
Surface temperature is projected to rise over the 21st century under all assessed emission scenarios. It
is very likely that heat waves will occur more often and last longer, and that extreme precipitation
events will become more intense and frequent in many regions. The ocean will continue to warm and
acidify, and global mean sea level to rise. {2.2}
...
2.3 Future risks and impacts caused by a changing climate
Climate change will amplify existing risks and create new risks for natural and human systems. Risks
are unevenly distributed and are generally greater for disadvantaged people and communities in
countries at all levels of development. {2.3}
...
2.4 Climate change beyond 2100, irreversibility and abrupt changes
Many aspects of climate change and associated impacts will continue for centuries, even if
anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are stopped. The risks of abrupt or irreversible changes
increase as the magnitude of the warming increases. {2.4}
...
3. Future Pathways for Adaptation, Mitigation and Sustainable Development
Adaptation and mitigation are complementary strategies for reducing and managing the risks of
climate change. Substantial emissions reductions over the next few decades can reduce climate risks in
the 21st century and beyond, increase prospects for effective adaptation, reduce the costs and
challenges of mitigation in the longer term, and contribute to climate-resilient pathways for
sustainable development. {3.2, 3.3, 3.4}
3.1 Foundations of decision-making about climate change
Effective decision making to limit climate change and its effects can be informed by a wide range of
analytical approaches for evaluating expected risks and benefits, recognizing the importance of
governance, ethical dimensions, equity, value judgments, economic assessments and diverse
perceptions and responses to risk and uncertainty. {3.1}
...
3.2 Climate change risks reduced by mitigation and adaptation
Without additional mitigation efforts beyond those in place today, and even with adaptation, warming
by the end of the 21st century will lead to high to very high risk of severe, widespread, and irreversible
impacts globally (high confidence). Mitigation involves some level of co-benefits and of risks due to
adverse side-effects, but these risks do not involve the same possibility of severe, widespread, and
irreversible impacts as risks from climate change, increasing the benefits from near-term mitigation
efforts. {3.2, 3.4}
...
3.3 Characteristics of adaptation pathways
Adaptation can reduce the risks of climate change impacts, but there are limits to its effectiveness,
especially with greater magnitudes and rates of climate change. Taking a longer-term perspective, in
the context of sustainable development, increases the likelihood that more immediate adaptation
actions will also enhance future options and preparedness. {3.3}
...
3.4 Characteristics of mitigation pathways
There are multiple mitigation pathways that are likely to limit warming to below 2°C relative to preindustrial levels.
These pathways would require substantial emissions reductions over the next few
decades and near zero emissions of CO2 and other long-lived GHGs by the end of the century.
Implementing such reductions poses substantial technological, economic, social, and institutional
challenges, which increase with delays in additional mitigation and if key technologies are not
available. Limiting warming to lower or higher levels involves similar challenges, but on different
timescales. {3.4}
...
4. Adaptation and Mitigation
Many adaptation and mitigation options can help address climate change, but no single option is
sufficient by itself. Effective implementation depends on policies and cooperation at all scales, and can
be enhanced through integrated responses that link adaptation and mitigation with other societal
objectives. {4}
4.1 Common enabling factors and constraints for adaptation and mitigation responses
Adaptation and mitigation responses are underpinned by common enabling factors. These include
effective institutions and governance, innovation and investments in environmentally sound
technologies and infrastructure, sustainable livelihoods, and behavioral and lifestyle choices. {4.1}
...
4.2 Response options for adaptation
Adaptation options exist in all sectors, but their context for implementation and potential to reduce
climate-related risks differs across sectors and regions. Some adaptation responses involve significant
co-benefits, synergies and trade-offs. Increasing climate change will increase challenges for many
adaptation options. {4.2}
...
4.3 Response options for mitigation
Mitigation options are available in every major sector. Mitigation can be more cost-effective if using
an integrated approach that combines measures to reduce energy use and the GHG intensity of enduse sectors,
decarbonize energy supply, reduce net emissions and enhance carbon sinks in land-based
sectors. {4.3}
...
4.4 Policy approaches for adaptation and mitigation, technology and finance
Effective adaptation and mitigation responses will depend on policies and measures across multiple
scales: international, regional, national and sub-national. Policies across all scales supporting
technology development, diffusion and transfer, as well as finance for responses to climate change,
can complement and enhance the effectiveness of policies that directly promote adaptation and
mitigation. {4.4}
...
4.5 Trade-offs, synergies and interactions with sustainable development
Climate change is a threat to sustainable development. Nonetheless, there are many opportunities to
link mitigation, adaptation and the pursuit of other societal objectives through integrated responses
(high confidence). Successful implementation relies on relevant tools, suitable governance structures
and enhanced capacity to respond (medium confidence). {3.5, 4.5}
...
SYNTHESIS REPORT
Approved Summary for Policymakers
1 November 2014
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/SYR_AR5_SPM.pdf
...
1. Observed Changes and their Causes
Human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse
gases are the highest in history. Recent climate changes have had widespread impacts on human and
natural systems. {1}
1.1 Observed changes in the climate system
Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are
unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of
snow and ice have diminished, and sea level has risen. {1.1}
...
1.2 Causes of climate change
Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have increased since the pre-industrial era, driven largely by
economic and population growth, and are now higher than ever. This has led to atmospheric
concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide that are unprecedented in at least the last
800,000 years. Their effects, together with those of other anthropogenic drivers, have been detected
throughout the climate system and are extremely likely to have been the dominant cause of the
observed warming since the mid-20th century. {1.2, 1.3.1}
...
1.3 Impacts of climate change
In recent decades, changes in climate have caused impacts on natural and human systems on all
continents and across the oceans. Impacts are due to observed climate change, irrespective of its cause,
indicating the sensitivity of natural and human systems to changing climate. {1.3.2}
...
1.4. Extreme events
Changes in many extreme weather and climate events have been observed since about 1950. Some of
these changes have been linked to human influences, including a decrease in cold temperature
extremes, an increase in warm temperature extremes, an increase in extreme high sea levels and an
increase in the number of heavy precipitation events in a number of regions. {1.4}
...
2. Future Climate Changes, Risks and Impacts
Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes in all
components of the climate system, increasing the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irreversible
impacts for people and ecosystems. Limiting climate change would require substantial and sustained
reductions in greenhouse gas emissions which, together with adaptation, can limit climate change
risks. {2}
2.1 Key drivers of future climate
Cumulative emissions of CO2 largely determine global mean surface warming by the late 21st century
and beyond. Projections of greenhouse gas emissions vary over a wide range, depending on both socioeconomic development and climate policy. {2.1}
...
2.2 Projected changes in the climate system
The projected changes in Section SPM 2.2 are for 2081-2100 relative to 1986-2005, unless otherwise
indicated.
Surface temperature is projected to rise over the 21st century under all assessed emission scenarios. It
is very likely that heat waves will occur more often and last longer, and that extreme precipitation
events will become more intense and frequent in many regions. The ocean will continue to warm and
acidify, and global mean sea level to rise. {2.2}
...
2.3 Future risks and impacts caused by a changing climate
Climate change will amplify existing risks and create new risks for natural and human systems. Risks
are unevenly distributed and are generally greater for disadvantaged people and communities in
countries at all levels of development. {2.3}
...
2.4 Climate change beyond 2100, irreversibility and abrupt changes
Many aspects of climate change and associated impacts will continue for centuries, even if
anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are stopped. The risks of abrupt or irreversible changes
increase as the magnitude of the warming increases. {2.4}
...
3. Future Pathways for Adaptation, Mitigation and Sustainable Development
Adaptation and mitigation are complementary strategies for reducing and managing the risks of
climate change. Substantial emissions reductions over the next few decades can reduce climate risks in
the 21st century and beyond, increase prospects for effective adaptation, reduce the costs and
challenges of mitigation in the longer term, and contribute to climate-resilient pathways for
sustainable development. {3.2, 3.3, 3.4}
3.1 Foundations of decision-making about climate change
Effective decision making to limit climate change and its effects can be informed by a wide range of
analytical approaches for evaluating expected risks and benefits, recognizing the importance of
governance, ethical dimensions, equity, value judgments, economic assessments and diverse
perceptions and responses to risk and uncertainty. {3.1}
...
3.2 Climate change risks reduced by mitigation and adaptation
Without additional mitigation efforts beyond those in place today, and even with adaptation, warming
by the end of the 21st century will lead to high to very high risk of severe, widespread, and irreversible
impacts globally (high confidence). Mitigation involves some level of co-benefits and of risks due to
adverse side-effects, but these risks do not involve the same possibility of severe, widespread, and
irreversible impacts as risks from climate change, increasing the benefits from near-term mitigation
efforts. {3.2, 3.4}
...
3.3 Characteristics of adaptation pathways
Adaptation can reduce the risks of climate change impacts, but there are limits to its effectiveness,
especially with greater magnitudes and rates of climate change. Taking a longer-term perspective, in
the context of sustainable development, increases the likelihood that more immediate adaptation
actions will also enhance future options and preparedness. {3.3}
...
3.4 Characteristics of mitigation pathways
There are multiple mitigation pathways that are likely to limit warming to below 2°C relative to preindustrial levels.
These pathways would require substantial emissions reductions over the next few
decades and near zero emissions of CO2 and other long-lived GHGs by the end of the century.
Implementing such reductions poses substantial technological, economic, social, and institutional
challenges, which increase with delays in additional mitigation and if key technologies are not
available. Limiting warming to lower or higher levels involves similar challenges, but on different
timescales. {3.4}
...
4. Adaptation and Mitigation
Many adaptation and mitigation options can help address climate change, but no single option is
sufficient by itself. Effective implementation depends on policies and cooperation at all scales, and can
be enhanced through integrated responses that link adaptation and mitigation with other societal
objectives. {4}
4.1 Common enabling factors and constraints for adaptation and mitigation responses
Adaptation and mitigation responses are underpinned by common enabling factors. These include
effective institutions and governance, innovation and investments in environmentally sound
technologies and infrastructure, sustainable livelihoods, and behavioral and lifestyle choices. {4.1}
...
4.2 Response options for adaptation
Adaptation options exist in all sectors, but their context for implementation and potential to reduce
climate-related risks differs across sectors and regions. Some adaptation responses involve significant
co-benefits, synergies and trade-offs. Increasing climate change will increase challenges for many
adaptation options. {4.2}
...
4.3 Response options for mitigation
Mitigation options are available in every major sector. Mitigation can be more cost-effective if using
an integrated approach that combines measures to reduce energy use and the GHG intensity of enduse sectors,
decarbonize energy supply, reduce net emissions and enhance carbon sinks in land-based
sectors. {4.3}
...
4.4 Policy approaches for adaptation and mitigation, technology and finance
Effective adaptation and mitigation responses will depend on policies and measures across multiple
scales: international, regional, national and sub-national. Policies across all scales supporting
technology development, diffusion and transfer, as well as finance for responses to climate change,
can complement and enhance the effectiveness of policies that directly promote adaptation and
mitigation. {4.4}
...
4.5 Trade-offs, synergies and interactions with sustainable development
Climate change is a threat to sustainable development. Nonetheless, there are many opportunities to
link mitigation, adaptation and the pursuit of other societal objectives through integrated responses
(high confidence). Successful implementation relies on relevant tools, suitable governance structures
and enhanced capacity to respond (medium confidence). {3.5, 4.5}
...