tetano
Editor, Senior Moderator
JMIR Public Health Surveill
. 2025 Aug 26:11:e76459.
doi: 10.2196/76459. Assessment of Influenza Testing Distribution in the United States for the 2021-2022, 2022-2023, and 2023-2024 Influenza Seasons: Online Cross-Sectional Study
Autumn Gertz[SUP] 1 [/SUP], Juliana B Sopko[SUP] 1 [/SUP], Christopher Remmel[SUP] 1 [/SUP], Benjamin Rader[SUP] 1 2 [/SUP], John S Brownstein[SUP] 1 2 [/SUP]
Affiliations
Background: Effective surveillance of seasonal influenza is crucial to understanding disease burden and impact. Traditional surveillance accounts for those who interact with the health care system, including those who are testing for diseases like influenza. However, care seeking and testing are not as common with influenza and can lead to bias. Better understanding who is being captured by current surveillance methods can help further knowledge around influenza and identify areas of improvement in surveillance, disease mitigation, and intervention efforts.
Objective: This study aimed to examine who is testing for influenza amongst a United States representative survey population, across three seasons influenza seasons spanning 2021 to 2024.
Methods: Outbreaks near me (ONM) is a participatory surveillance system that, in partnership with SurveyMonkey, conducted a web-based, weekly cross-sectional survey. ONM Survey data from three influenza seasons was used in this study: 2021-2022, 2022-2023, and 2023-2024. Tested for influenza was defined as a "yes" response to "In the past 30 days, have you been tested for influenza (flu)?" Descriptive proportions applying survey weights reflecting US census targets were produced to understand which demographic groups were testing for influenza. A weighted multivariate logistic regression was conducted for influenza testing by income, adjusting for other demographics and COVID-19 testing. Descriptive proportions and multivariate regressions were conducted by influenza season.
Results: In total, 940,172 responses were collected, with similar amounts in 2021-2022 (n=335,964) and 2022-2023 (n=334,584), and slightly less in 2023-2024 (n=269,624). Generally, low levels of influenza testing were reported in each season at 4.2%, 9.1%, and 8.9%, respectively. Weighted proportions of those who tested for influenza only and no other diseases (like COVID-19) were even lower (0.4%, 971/335,964; 1.5%, 4,382/334,584; and 2.0%, 4579/269,624; respectively). Broadly, those who had lower income tested for influenza at progressively higher proportions. A similar trend was observed season to season with education level as well. Across the 3 observed influenza seasons, lower household annual income (under US $15,000) was associated with higher odds of testing for influenza (2021-2022: adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 1.41, 95% CI 1.34-1.48; 2022-2023: AOR 1.42, 95% CI 1.35-1.49; 2023-2024: AOR 1.25, 95% CI 1.18-1.34), while those with higher incomes (over US $150,000) were less likely to have been tested for influenza (2021-2022: AOR 0.64, 95% CI 0.55-0.86; 2022-2023: AOR 0.82, 95% CI 0.73-0.91; 2023-2024: AOR 0.66, 95% CI 0.56-0.76).
Conclusions: Within this study population, individuals who fall within lower-income brackets tested for influenza more than their higher-income counterparts. In all 3 seasons spanning 2021-2024, lower income was associated with higher proportions of influenza testing and an increased likelihood of having tested for influenza in the past 30 days. These trends suggest that populations that may experience more barriers to care are not only accessing influenza testing but doing so differently than groups that historically access care.
Keywords: flu testing; health survey; influenza; influenza-like illness; syndromic surveillance.
. 2025 Aug 26:11:e76459.
doi: 10.2196/76459. Assessment of Influenza Testing Distribution in the United States for the 2021-2022, 2022-2023, and 2023-2024 Influenza Seasons: Online Cross-Sectional Study
Autumn Gertz[SUP] 1 [/SUP], Juliana B Sopko[SUP] 1 [/SUP], Christopher Remmel[SUP] 1 [/SUP], Benjamin Rader[SUP] 1 2 [/SUP], John S Brownstein[SUP] 1 2 [/SUP]
Affiliations
- PMID: 40856618
- DOI: 10.2196/76459
Background: Effective surveillance of seasonal influenza is crucial to understanding disease burden and impact. Traditional surveillance accounts for those who interact with the health care system, including those who are testing for diseases like influenza. However, care seeking and testing are not as common with influenza and can lead to bias. Better understanding who is being captured by current surveillance methods can help further knowledge around influenza and identify areas of improvement in surveillance, disease mitigation, and intervention efforts.
Objective: This study aimed to examine who is testing for influenza amongst a United States representative survey population, across three seasons influenza seasons spanning 2021 to 2024.
Methods: Outbreaks near me (ONM) is a participatory surveillance system that, in partnership with SurveyMonkey, conducted a web-based, weekly cross-sectional survey. ONM Survey data from three influenza seasons was used in this study: 2021-2022, 2022-2023, and 2023-2024. Tested for influenza was defined as a "yes" response to "In the past 30 days, have you been tested for influenza (flu)?" Descriptive proportions applying survey weights reflecting US census targets were produced to understand which demographic groups were testing for influenza. A weighted multivariate logistic regression was conducted for influenza testing by income, adjusting for other demographics and COVID-19 testing. Descriptive proportions and multivariate regressions were conducted by influenza season.
Results: In total, 940,172 responses were collected, with similar amounts in 2021-2022 (n=335,964) and 2022-2023 (n=334,584), and slightly less in 2023-2024 (n=269,624). Generally, low levels of influenza testing were reported in each season at 4.2%, 9.1%, and 8.9%, respectively. Weighted proportions of those who tested for influenza only and no other diseases (like COVID-19) were even lower (0.4%, 971/335,964; 1.5%, 4,382/334,584; and 2.0%, 4579/269,624; respectively). Broadly, those who had lower income tested for influenza at progressively higher proportions. A similar trend was observed season to season with education level as well. Across the 3 observed influenza seasons, lower household annual income (under US $15,000) was associated with higher odds of testing for influenza (2021-2022: adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 1.41, 95% CI 1.34-1.48; 2022-2023: AOR 1.42, 95% CI 1.35-1.49; 2023-2024: AOR 1.25, 95% CI 1.18-1.34), while those with higher incomes (over US $150,000) were less likely to have been tested for influenza (2021-2022: AOR 0.64, 95% CI 0.55-0.86; 2022-2023: AOR 0.82, 95% CI 0.73-0.91; 2023-2024: AOR 0.66, 95% CI 0.56-0.76).
Conclusions: Within this study population, individuals who fall within lower-income brackets tested for influenza more than their higher-income counterparts. In all 3 seasons spanning 2021-2024, lower income was associated with higher proportions of influenza testing and an increased likelihood of having tested for influenza in the past 30 days. These trends suggest that populations that may experience more barriers to care are not only accessing influenza testing but doing so differently than groups that historically access care.
Keywords: flu testing; health survey; influenza; influenza-like illness; syndromic surveillance.