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World J Cardiol
. 2026 Jan 26;18(1):112466.
doi: 10.4330/wjc.v18.i1.112466.
Cardiovascular burden of long coronavirus disease: Clinical challenges and emerging biomarkers
Carlos Eduardo Oliveira Aguiar 1 , Juan Marcos Caram Costa 1 , Marina Maria Gomes Leite Oliveira 1 , Caio Ferraz Lopes 1 , Pedro Henrique Melo Lima 1 , Victoria Cenci Dietrich 1 , Rafaella Fortini Queiroz Grenfell 2 3 , Fabrício Freire de Melo 4
Affiliations
Long coronavirus disease (LC) is a condition characterized by a persistent state, with recurrent/remitting or progressive episodes, that may affect one or multiple organ systems following severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection. The cardiovascular system is particularly impacted by this condition. This review aims to discuss the cardiovascular implications in LC and its potential mechanisms. We offer an updated summary of established and emerging biomarkers with clinical potential for diagnosis, risk stratification, and therapy monitoring. Conventional markers with established clinical roles, such as cardiac troponins, natriuretic peptides (B-type natriuretic peptide/N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide), D-dimer, and inflammatory markers (e.g., C-reactive protein, interleukin-6), coexist with less established but promising biomarkers, such as growth differentiation factor-15, galectin-3, von Willebrand factor, endothelin-1, and circulating microRNAs. The incomplete understanding of the mechanisms and their diverse clinical manifestations, underscores the urgent need for efficient diagnostic tests and predictive models. In this context, besides the lack of standardization in biomarker testing and the absence of validated longitudinal predictive models, the use of biomarker-based strategies represents a potential tool to improve early detection of high-risk patients, enable personalized follow-up, and support more effective prevention of cardiovascular complications in LC patients in clinical practice.
Keywords: Biomarkers; Cardiovascular sequelae; Endothelial dysfunction; Long coronavirus disease; Myocardial injury; Risk stratification.
. 2026 Jan 26;18(1):112466.
doi: 10.4330/wjc.v18.i1.112466.
Cardiovascular burden of long coronavirus disease: Clinical challenges and emerging biomarkers
Carlos Eduardo Oliveira Aguiar 1 , Juan Marcos Caram Costa 1 , Marina Maria Gomes Leite Oliveira 1 , Caio Ferraz Lopes 1 , Pedro Henrique Melo Lima 1 , Victoria Cenci Dietrich 1 , Rafaella Fortini Queiroz Grenfell 2 3 , Fabrício Freire de Melo 4
Affiliations
- PMID: 41607619
- PMCID: PMC12835994
- DOI: 10.4330/wjc.v18.i1.112466
Long coronavirus disease (LC) is a condition characterized by a persistent state, with recurrent/remitting or progressive episodes, that may affect one or multiple organ systems following severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection. The cardiovascular system is particularly impacted by this condition. This review aims to discuss the cardiovascular implications in LC and its potential mechanisms. We offer an updated summary of established and emerging biomarkers with clinical potential for diagnosis, risk stratification, and therapy monitoring. Conventional markers with established clinical roles, such as cardiac troponins, natriuretic peptides (B-type natriuretic peptide/N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide), D-dimer, and inflammatory markers (e.g., C-reactive protein, interleukin-6), coexist with less established but promising biomarkers, such as growth differentiation factor-15, galectin-3, von Willebrand factor, endothelin-1, and circulating microRNAs. The incomplete understanding of the mechanisms and their diverse clinical manifestations, underscores the urgent need for efficient diagnostic tests and predictive models. In this context, besides the lack of standardization in biomarker testing and the absence of validated longitudinal predictive models, the use of biomarker-based strategies represents a potential tool to improve early detection of high-risk patients, enable personalized follow-up, and support more effective prevention of cardiovascular complications in LC patients in clinical practice.
Keywords: Biomarkers; Cardiovascular sequelae; Endothelial dysfunction; Long coronavirus disease; Myocardial injury; Risk stratification.